Letter of Reflection (letter to Dean (chair of English department)) Essay

Letter of Reflection (letter to Dean (chair of English department)) - Essay Example My persistence with the work and timely completion of assignments made it possible to catch up with the demanding environment of classes. My inquisitive nature won some good friends in the class and extra attention of teacher. Thanks to the broad smiles of my teachers they always welcomed my questions. This would be unfair if I do not refer here Dr Jones whose interesting and attractive styles made impossible things to understand very easily understandable. This was because of his passionate teaching with the help of pictures and interesting stories that I shun my shyness over a short passage of time and became a lively character in the class. At the end of the course I am thankful to the interactive environment that left a lot of creative techniques in me. 2- Exercises on autobiographies gave me a chance of retrospection on my past experiences and to jot them down in a comprehensive and systematic manner. This was again an impressively good manner of rediscovering an author in myself. 3- Literature analysis essays like the one I did on â€Å"Strange Meeting by Wilfred Owen† mad it possible for me to understand how to analyze a text, conceptualize the text, relate it with the plot, and comprehend it from author’s point of view. 5- While analyzing drama of Shakespeare - The Merchant of Venice: I have been able to learn the conventions, language, character/plot, tragedy and comedy in a drama. The theater of imagination was the mort important thing that impressed me in this exercise. After having said all above, I would like to submit that my writing skills might have not improved that much had I not been perfectly exposed to a variety of readings on daily basis. The reading habits enriched my ideas on literature and made my ideas more sequential and logical. This habit added volumes of vocabulary into my knowledge that I was never familiar with. I became familiar with the logos in

University Culture Essay Example for Free

University Culture Essay There are universities all over the world with their own unique cultures which include their own customs among other things. Rice University is a great example of a college with its very own unique culture compared to other universities. E. B. Tyler defined culture as â€Å"†¦that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society† (Howe â€Å"Culture† lecture 2011). This is only one of many definitions of culture that have been thrown around by numerous individuals throughout the course of history. This definition in particular fits Rice University extremely well. No one of the before mentioned qualities such as knowledge, morals, or customs make Rice University what it culturally is, but it is when all of these aspects are brought together that Rice really becomes what the university is today. When one matriculates at Rice University they all of a sudden become a part of something much larger than they were before. They become part of a grand family. One of the first things that Rice University drilled into my head when I first arrived was the idea of the honor code, which is really a set of laws that govern the student body. In this system the student is granted a great deal of trust from their professors and the university in as a whole. Things such as take home exams are commonplace thanks to the commitment from the students to respect the honor code. Since such a high focus is placed on the honor code it is in fact a major piece of the culture here at Rice. I feel like this practice works at Rice so well because the students at Rice tend to have shown a great deal of commitment to get into such a great school that they are able to be trusted to be more responsible than the average college student. In different cultures across the planet there are an abundant amount of rituals practiced. Things such as holidays and religion are specific to certain cultures. Rice University has a few rituals of its own. The one that comes to mind most often for people is the running of Baker 13. This is a taboo ritual in the sense that it is prohibited to just anyone (Howe â€Å"Rituals† lecture 2011). This practice would actually be illegal outside of Rice actually. A brief overview of what Baker 13 entails is a bunch of naked college students running around campus at night covered in shaving cream. They attempt to attack any other students unlucky enough to get in their path with a naked, shaving cream covered hug. This practice is unique to Rice University and thus is a way to help establish Rice’s own culture. When it comes to Rice’s ethnic culture things are quite different from the average run of the mill culture. While cultures usually have a specific ethnic group that is prevalent, Rice University prides itself by having so many students with such a wide range of ethnic backgrounds. Rice actually draws from a plethora of ethnic groups, in which â€Å"members share certain beliefs, values, customs, and norms because of their common background† (Howe â€Å"Ethnicity† lecture 2011). This ability to draw from so many different cultures and their ethnic groups is a major part of Rice University’s own culture. Much the same as American culture is borrowed culture from other areas in the world, Rice can be seen as being multicultural. Rice is definitely not only composed of many other cultures coming together. Rice’s culture has many other aspects unique to itself such as the before mentioned rituals and life here in general. Rice University even has its own language exclusive to Rice. This can be seen in the different cheers of each of the eleven different residential colleges here on campus. These cheers tend to be somewhat more vulgar than the average language seen outside of Rice University with some even referring to sexual acts with another’s parents. Language here at Rice is not restricted to merely vocalizations. We, much like gangs in the streets, have a few hand gestures and symbols that are commonly used here. One such gesture is when one makes an owl with his or her hands. This is commonly seen at sporting events when students are cheering on for the Rice University owls. This is one way in which all of the students come together in show support for their fellow students. In some ways people might think of Rice University as not really having a unifying culture. This can be attributed to the eleven different residential colleges here on campus. Each college does in fact have its own culture, so Rice University is actually made up of eleven sub-cultures. These sub-cultures actively compete amongst one another in events such as powder-puff, basketball, and other sporting venues. This competition can come across as counterproductive in keeping a university wide culture intact. Many might wonder how a culture that has almost a dozen sub-cultures that compete against each other so often and even have anti-cheers for one another could still be called a culture. Culture is in fact seen as something that unifies groups and individuals so it is understandable when people do not see Rice University as really having a university wide culture. To me this idea of Rice University not having a culture is totally ungrounded. The many sub-cultures of Rice actually add to the overall campus wide community in my opinion. Rice University has the culture it does because of the ability to have so many different sub-cultures coexist with one another and form such a unified student body. This unification is not always noticeable on the surface, but rest assured Rice people love other Rice people. Like I mentioned above, the whole university comes together at college-level sporting events to cheer on the team against other universities. Another example of members of the different residential colleges coming together is during classes. Since attending class plays such a major role when one is at a university they can be great opportunities for cooperation among the eleven residential colleges. Students from all the residential colleges work together in class on group projects and discussing the topics of the class. Like all universities, Rice has numerous clubs and organizations that one can become a part of. The clubs and organizations welcome anyone to join in and become a member. Even cultural clubs that represent specific foreign cultures welcome individuals from any other cultural background to join in their activities. A few weeks ago I attended a production put on by Rice’s own Southeast Asian dance organization. There were an abundant amount of individuals participating in the production that were obviously not of Southeast Asian heritage. To me this proves just how many different cultures can coexist within Rice University’s very own culture. In other words I believe that Rice University has a special and unique culture thanks to the university’s ability to bring so many diverse cultures together. Not many other places or organizations could have such a strong presence in my opinion. In my short time at Rice so far I have already been affected by the culture of this place. I remember when applying to colleges I would think of how it would be when I actually started attending a university. I would think of all the college cliches from movies and friends’ experiences that had already began their collegiate career. I began to form my thoughts of how I thought college would be when I finally got there. After I got to Rice I soon realized that how I thought the culture would be was completely off. Rice is a place where one has to really be a part of and experience its culture for that culture to be really understood and appreciated. Works Cited Howe, Cymene 2011 â€Å"Culture† lecture. Rice University, Introduction to Social/Cultural Anthropology, Fall. Howe, Cymene 2011 â€Å"Rituals† lecture. Rice University, Introduction to Social/Cultural Anthropology, Fall. Howe, Cymene 2011 â€Å"Ethnicity† lecture. Rice University, Introduction to Social/Cultural Anthropology, Fall.

Is Class Still Relevant in a Modern Society?

Is Class Still Relevant in a Modern Society? The question of whether ‘class is still a relevant concept in the understanding of social divisions in contemporary Britain has two components to be analysed, firstly is class still and do social divisions exist in Britain? The results of this research indicate yes to both questions, that although class and the nature of its existence have changed since Marx, Weber and Durkheim’s eras, it is very difficult to get past the important and definite existence of class and social divisions within Britain today. Neo-Marxists, neo-Weberians as well as functionalists and other theorists analysing it from a post-modern, post industrialisation perspective support this opinion. Class itself is a concept that has been traditionally hard to define and continues to be so. As Bradley states in Fractured Identities (1996, p. 45), ‘class is everywhere and nowhere’. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. It has a shifting identity with few definite physical signs or markers to monitor. Part of the difficulty to define it categorically is that it involves many terms and viewpoints: class awareness; class consciousness; class imagery; class interest; class position; contradictory class location; false consciousness; middle class; petite bourgeoisie; proletariat; status; stratification; underclass; working class, the list is extensive. As Bilton et al (1987, p. 36) states: ‘Structures where economic relationships are primarily called class societies, and in these cases we refer to the different unequal groups as classes. There is considerable despite over the precise definition of this term, but we shall use class to refer to a group sharing a similar position in a structure of objective material inequalities, produced by a particular system of economic relations characteristic of a particular mode of production.’ (Bilton T, et al 1987, p. 36; Bradley 1996, pp. 45-6). Analysing class has historically formed a set of debates, emanating from the initial positions taken by theorists such as Marx and Weber, this debate has continued with neo-Marxists and neo-Weberians. In Class and Stratification. An Introduction to Current Debates, Rosemary Crompton (1998) suggests there is now a movement that involves a split between those who study class structure and mobility using statistical research and those who focus on class formation and consciousness by using historical or ethnographical approaches. This conflict has resulted in a stalemate of sorts where some sociologists have lost interest in the importance of social class. While anthropologists, historians and sociologists identify class as a social structure emerging from pre-history, the idea of social class entered the English dictionary approximately in the 1770s. It is valuable for this reason that any changes that may have been made since its induction should be evaluated. (Bradley 1996, pp. 45-6; Taylor, 1999, pp. 97-8). Marx saw class categories as relating to the ownership of property, and production relationship. He founded a revolutionary concept in social order – communism, in a communist state there would be no stratification. The two groups were the bourgeoisie who owned the means of production, and the proletariat the workers. He believed this relationship was based upon exploitation and conflict. Marx predicted a revolution in which the proletariat would defeat the bourgeoisie and share ownership of the factories equally between themselves. Although this did not occur in Britain, it did in Russia, in 1917. The proletariat revolted and all means of production fell into public ownership, forming a socialist state. This was close to Marxs ideological dream of communism. However, ownership despite being equal still existed and there was divisions still existed, some people had better, more highly respected, jobs than others. There was still inequality and competition. (Albrow, 1999, pp 155-9; Bilton T, et al 1987, pp 27-8). Weber was influenced by Marxs work but disagreed with his theory, he thought it was too deterministic. Being a structuralist, he believed people were shaped by the society in which they lived and capable of social action. He also disagreed with Marxs theory on stratification. Marx based his view of class structure on ownership of the means of production whilst Weber believed it was dependant on life chances. Life chances depended on wealth and skills; the upper class had the most advantageous life chances, and the poor (e.g. the unemployed, elderly and homeless), the least; economic situation, market situation, status and political party could determine class. Whist Marx split society into two distinct classes; Weber saw that social structure was more complex. The four main strata he identified were the upper class, the middle class, the working class and the poor/underclass. However, within these groups, were other, more subtle divisions, which depended on a number of variables incl uding differences in income, opportunities for upwards mobility, security of employment, language, life-style and social estimation of others. However, Weber perceived class as somewhat different, he believed that class consciousness was essentially conditional –that consciousness could occur depending upon circumstances. He acknowledged, as Marx believed, that classes and social groups were likely to experience conflict in attempts to gain status honour or class movement. (Taylor, 1999, pp. 99). Neo-Marxists come in many varying forms, but they share a common acknowledgement of the importance of gender/sex divisions. Nevertheless, it was still placed less important than class divisions under a capitalist society. Consequently, they thought the primary basis of exploitation in society was class, not gender. This implies that capitalists have more power over workers than men have over women, not an uncontroversial view. Issues of race and ethnicity were also viewed as less important than class. Functionalists take the view that social stratification is both essential to the running of society and inevitable. They believe that all social phenomena exist because they have a positive function to fulfil. Durkheim, a functionalist, described society as a living organism in which different organs with specific functions such as education, work, and government are inter-related. According to Bilton et al (1987), ‘the education system is a vehicle for developing the human resour ces of an industrial nation.’ (Bilton T, et al 1987, p. 308; Swingewood 2000, pp 137-140). In Class and Stratification, Crompton challenges the claim that class is dead and is in fact very much alive. In the vein of this belief, Goldthorpe and Wright critically examine ‘post-modern’ theories of ‘post-class’ societies, as well as the most recent contributions of quantitative sociological approaches. It is argued that despite their theoretical differences, the work of these two authors has been undergoing a process of convergence in recent years. Crompton analyses how the death of class is the contemporary increase in the event of social and material inequality. Definitional difficulties of class are only one aspect of the decision by many sociologists to question its relevance. Cromption explores social inequalities including gender and the feminisation of the middle classes, the significance of recent changes in work and employment, consumption and citizenship. (Bradley 1996, pp. 59-62; Crompton 1998, pp. 113-5) In most modern industrial societies, including Britain, the system of social stratification is fluid through generations or perhaps in their own lifetime, people can move up or down the social scale. A number of modern thinkers have tried to define what makes a particular ‘social class’. Is it accent, surroundings, occupation, income, wealth? If we simply spoke only about class as it was first defined and existed since Marx/Weber times we would not taking into account societal changes such as the increase in unemployment, health care crises, resulting in a concept of society that has always existed yet, become more prevent and occupied: the underclass. It seems that any social divisions that may exist stem from the pretext of social class and its restraints and the difficulty to move from one class to another is problematic. (Bilton T, et al 1987, 308). Thatcher’s Conservative Party did not believe in the concept of society, rather than society had no existence outside of individuals. Her party’s main aim was to reduce the role of the state in the economy, through various means such as the privatisation of British Rail, council houses and the introduction of poll tax in 1989. She advocated strong welfare reforms and created an adult Employment Training system that included full-time work done for the dole plus small top-up, based upon the a US workfare model, called the ‘Social Fund’ system. It placed one-off welfare payments for emergency needs under a local budgetary limit, and where possible changed them into loans, and rules for assessing jobseeking effort by the week, were breaches of social consensus unprecedented since the 1920s. All very strong and harsh steps only seeming to increase the already obvious class inequalities and difficulties in British society. By 1990, opposition to Thatchers polici es on local government taxation, her Governments perceived mishandling of the economy -especially the high interest rates which were undermining her core voting base within the home-owning, entrepreneurial and business sectors, as well as other factors finally made her and her party seem increasingly politically vulnerable. Her rein was over, yet her affect on British society remains strong and well-felt by general society. So it seems given all the variants and backgrounds that we have discussed that class divisions still exist and thus are still very relevant. The old saying the rich gets richer and the poor get poorer certainly was true of Thatcher’s era (Taylor, 1999, pp. 111-3; Albrow, 1999, pp 56-7; Margaret Thatcher: 2006). The Rowntree Report in 1995 exposed that unemployment rates in Britain were rising high and more rapidly than in any other industrial country – a very worrying finding, that unemployment, insecurity and deprivation were still very much prevalent in the working classes. Examining the existence of the underclass leads us to the question of whether it is a convenient label, and a powerful rhetorical label, as Marxists argue, or is it a post-industrial phenomenon? Considering that we are analysing British society post-industrialisation, this is an interesting question to ponder. Some theorists believe that it is a term that victimises and blames people and keeps them in their socio-economic spot without the opportunity or resources to move. (Fincher, R Saunders, P, 2001, p. 21; Bradley 1996, p 46; Taylor, 1999, pp. 113-5). To answer our original question of whether class can still be used as applicable concept in the understanding of social divisions in contemporary Britain, the answer is most definitely yes, but it has changed from the days of Marx and Weber and initial sociological conceptualisation. It seems that to analyse this process highlights the parts of society that may be disadvantaged through their social class or class immobility. Awareness is an important part of the process of changing and at the very least, compassion and societal responsibility. Bibliography Albrow, M, 1999, Sociology: The Basics. Roultedge, London Bilton T, Bennett, K, Jones, P, Stanworth, M, Sheard, K Webster, A 1987. Introductory Sociology. Macmillan Education Ltd, Hampshire. Bradley, H, 1996. Fractured Identities. Changing Patterns of Inequality. Polity Press, Cambridge, UK. Crompton, R, 1998. Class and Stratification. An Introduction to Current Debates, Polity Press, Cambridge, UK. Erikson, K, 1997, Sociological Visions, Rowman Littlefield Publishers, Inc, USA. Fincher, R Saunders, P, 2001, Creating Unequal Futures? Rethinking Poverty, Inequality and Disadvantage. Allen and Unwin, Australia. Giddens, A 1993. Sociology, Polity Press, Cambridge, UK. Taylor, S, 1999, Sociology: Issues and Debates, Macmillan, Great Britain. Swingewood, A 2000. A Short History of Sociological Thought, 3rd Ed, St Martin’s Press, New York. Psychological/Sociological Paradigms, retrieved 7th April 2006, from:Â  http://webpages.marshall.edu/~carter12/eda705a5.htm. Wikipedia, April 2006, Margreat Thatcher, retrieved 11th April 2006, from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher

Breastfeeding: Advantages and Disadvantages

Breastfeeding: Advantages and Disadvantages This essay is potentially vast in its scope as the advantages and disadvantages of breastfeeding can vary enormously depending on which authority one chooses to consult. (1) We shall therefore take an overview and present the generally accepted arguments in this area. There is a substantial evidence base for the benefits of breastfeeding for not only the infant, but also the mother, the families and society as a whole. (2). The benefits are not only nutritional, but cover other areas such as development, immunity, psychological well-being, overall health risks, social and environmental areas (3) Human milk is widely recommended as the food of choice for the otherwise healthy full-term newborn. Apart from providing the optimal nutrition it contains a number of cellular and humoral components such as phagocytes, immunocompetant cells, immunoglobulins and hormones and also plays a (as yet, not fully defined) role in promoting intestinal mucosal maturation. (4) Because of these (and other) considerations, the World Health Organisation recommends exclusive breastfeeding for at least the first six months of life. (5) There is widespread evidence that the trend towards universal breastfeeding is increasing (viz. 6) in most of the developed countries, Fewtrell gives a global figure of 2% per year. but studies show that this trend is not equal across all socio-economic and demographic groups. If we specifically consider the UK situation then we can show that the commencement of breastfeeding is equal in the working and non-working mothers groups, although if one considers the situation of how many mothers are still breastfeeding at six months post partum, the incidence in the working mothers group is less than half that in the non-working group. (7) What then is the evidence base for the benefits of breastfeeding? In addressing this question we shall confine our comments to those relevant to the developed world. If we consider the Kramer study, which compared the benefits of continued breastfeeding from 3 months to 6 months, the authors were able to demonstrate that the additional 3 months produced benefits in terms of greater weight gain, greater growth (length) together with a reduced incidence of gastrointestinal infection. (8) In absolute terms however, the benefits of breastfeeding over formula milks (or cows milk) is much greater. A huge number of potential childhood infections have been demonstrated to have a lower incidence in the breastfed child including bacterial meningitis, diarrhoea, respiratory tract infections, otitis media, urinary tract infections (9) as well as less common entities such as necrotising enetrocolitis (10). It is also significant that the all-cause mortality rates are 21% less in breast fed infants. We should note that this figure, although accurate, is misleading, as many high risk babies are not breast fed because of their intercurrent problems. (11) Apart from infections, many other health benefits can be demonstrated. There is a reduction in the incidence in sudden infant death syndrome under the age of 1 yr. (12). Diabetes (Type I and Type II) is less common amongst breastfed babies (in later life) as are the incidences of conditions such as lymphoma, leukaemia and Hodgkin’s disease. (13). Breastfeeding tends to be associated with a lower incidence of obesity, hypercholesterolaemia and asthma. (14) There is a slightly weaker evidence base to support the benefit of breastfeeding in terms of neurological development. Some authorities suggest that it can improve cognitive development. (15) and it may also reduce the perception of some painful stimuli. (16) In addition to benefits for the child, there are also a number of demonstrable benefits for the mother who breastfeeds. If suckling occurs at the time of birth, the resultant release of oxytocin reduces the incidence of post partum haemorrhage and increases the speed of uterine involution. (17). In the period after the birth, breastfeeding reduces both fertility and menstrual loss, it facilitates a return to pre-pregnancy weight, it reduces the risk of both ovarian and breast cancer (18) and may well reduce the incidence of osteoporotic fractured hips (19) In the opening segment of this essay we alluded to the benefits to the community as a whole. These can be defined in terms or reduced health costs to the community by virtue of the protective effects of breastfeeding. There are also less definable benefits in terms of reduced employee absenteeism. Some authorities have gone as far as to point to the environmental benefits of reduction in energy expenditure on production, distribution and disposal of formula feeds and their packaging. (20) Thus far we have considered the positive benefits of breastfeeding but in order to provide a balanced argument, we should also consider the disadvantages. The pre-term infant or severely underweight or ill baby has special needs and there are a number of reasons why they should not be breastfed. The pre-term infant has immature physiological systems and the kidneys may not be able to handle the osmotic gradients that are required to excrete the amount of fluid necessary to remove the amount of nutritional load required for adequate growth. This may result in respiratory problems and exacerbation of any pre-existing cardiac conditions (viz. patent ductus arteriosus). For this reason, most pre-term infant are electively parentrally fed and then weaned onto enteral feeding when their gastrointestinal tract and other physiological systems are mature enough to handle the fluid load. (21) If the mother is ill or has a potentially communicable illness such as HIV/AIDS or TB, then breastfeeding is contraindicated, as it is in conditions when certain drugs (both medicinal and recreational) are taken by the mother. (22). We should also record that the evidence for HIV/AIDS spread is not secure, as some studies have suggested that breastfeeding actually confers a degree of protection against HIV/AIDS for the child. This is still an area of considerable debate. (23) It is also clear from an examination of the literature on the subject, that there is a great deal of misinformation on the subject of breastfeeding in the popular press (and to a lesser extent in the medical press). Breastfeeding is not contraindicated in conditions such as Hepatitis B or C +ve. (24). Most febrile conditions are not a contraindication to breastfeeding as the maternal immune response will be passively given to the child in any event. Some authorities suggest that tobacco smoking is a contraindication to breastfeeding. If we remove considerations of general health from the consideration, there is no reason why tobacco smoke should be considered a bar to breastfeeding as such. (it clearly may be ill-advised however) (25). Some authorities suggest on theoretical grounds that breastfeeding should be suspended during the period of physiological jaundice of the newborn. A number of recent studies have shown that this is not necessary and may cause insurmountable difficulties in rehabilitation-establishing breastfeeding after the event. (26) In essence, within the scope of the exclusions referred to above, healthcare professionals should actively encourage and support mothers in their ability to breastfeed their offspring. In doing so, one should always consider the autonomy of the mother (27) and attempt to provide empowerment and education in order to facilitate the best result rather than compulsion or emotional blackmail. (28). This should help to ensure the maximum possible take up of breastfeeding from mothers who have been able to make a fully informed decision. If direct breastfeeding is not possible, then, generally speaking, expressed breast milk is the preferred substitute. In this essay we do not presume to have covered anything like an exhaustive presentation of the arguments, but there is no doubt, from an overview of the evidence base on the subject, that in the vast majority of cases, both mother and child will derive substantial benefits from being able to breast feed for at least the first six months of life. References (1) Duerbeck N B (1998) Breast-feeding: what you should know so you can talk to your patients. Comp Ther 1998 ; 24 : 310 318 (2) Kramer M S, Chalmers B, Hodnett E D, et al. (2001) Promotion of Breastfeeding Intervention Trial (PROBIT): a randomized trial in the Republic of Belarus. JAMA. 2001 ; 285 : 413 – 420 (3) Schanler R J. (2001) The use of human milk for premature infants. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001 ; 48 : 207 – 219 (4) Margolis L H and J. B. Schwartz (2000) The Relationship Between the Timing of Maternal Postpartum Hospital Discharge and Breastfeeding. J Hum Lact, May 1, 2000 ; 16 (2) : 121 128. (5) Fewtrell M S , J. B Morgan, C. Duggan, G. Gunnlaugsson, P. L Hibberd, A. Lucas, and R. E Klein man (2007) Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding: what is the evidence to support current recommendations? Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2007 ; 85 (2) : 635S 638S. (6) Bonuck K A, K. Freeman, and M. Trombley (2006) Randomized controlled trial of a prenatal and postnatal lactation consultant intervention on infant health care use. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, September 1, 2006 ; 160 (9) : 953 960. (7) Kramer M S, Kakuma R. (2001) The Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization ; 2001 (8) Kramer M S , Guo T, Platt R W et al. (2003) Infant growth and health outcomes associated with 3 compared with 6 mo of exclusive breastfeeding. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 78, No. 2, 291 295, August 2003 (9) Heinig M J. (2001) Host defense benefits of breastfeeding for the infant. Effect of breastfeeding duration and exclusivity. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001 ; 48 : 105 –123 (10) Dewey K G, Heinig M J, Nommsen-Rivers L A. (1995) Differences in morbidity between breast-fed and formula-fed infants. J Pediatr. 1995 ;126 : 696 – 702 (11) Chen A, Rogan W J. (2004) Breastfeeding and the risk of postneonatal death in the United States. Pediatrics. 2004 ;113 (5) (12) Horne R S, Parslow P M, Ferens D, Watts A M, Adamson T M. (2004) Comparison of evoked arousability in breast and formula fed infants. Arch Dis Child. 2004 ; 89 (1) : 22 –25 (13) Davis M K. (1998) Review of the evidence for an association between infant feeding and childhood cancer. Int J Cancer Suppl. 1998 ; 11 : 29 – 33 (14) Toschke A M, Vignerova J, Lhotska L, Osancova K, Koletzko B, von Kries R. (2002) Overweight and obesity in 6- to 14-year old Czech children in 1991: protective effect of breast-feeding. J Pediatr. 2002 ; 141 : 764 – 769 (15) Horwood L J, Darlow B A, Mogridge N. (2001) Breast milk feeding and cognitive ability at 7–8 years. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2001 ; 84 : F23 – F27 (16) Carbajal R, Veerapen S, Couderc S, Jugie M, Ville Y. (2003) Analgesic effect of breast feeding in term neonates: randomized controlled trial. BMJ. 2003 ; 326 : 13 (17) Labbok M H. (2001) Effects of breastfeeding on the mother. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2001 ; 48 : 143 – 158 (18) Rosenblatt K A, Thomas D B. (1993) Lactation and the risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid contraceptives. Int J Epidemiol. 1993 ; 22 : 192 – 197 (19) Paton L M, Alexander J L, Nowson C A, et al. (2003) Pregnancy and lactation have no long-term deleterious effect on measures of bone mineral in healthy women: a twin study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 ; 77 : 707 – 714 (20) Jarosz L A. (1993) Breast-feeding versus formula: cost comparison. Hawaii Med J. 1993 ; 52 : 14 – 18 (21) Denne, S. C., Karn, C. A., Ahlrichs, J. A., Dorotheo, A. R., Wang, J. Liechty, E. A. (1996) Proteolysis and phenylalanine hydroxylation in response to parenteral nutrition in extremely premature and normal newborns. J. Clin. Invest 97 : 746 -754 (22) Read J S; (2003) American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Human milk, breastfeeding, and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the United States. Pediatrics. 2003 ; 112 : 1196 – 1205 (23) Coutsoudis A, Rollins N. (2003) Breast-feeding and HIV transmission: the jury is still out. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003 ; 36 : 434 – 442 (24) Pickering : (2003) American Academy of Pediatrics. Transmission of infectious agents via human milk. In: Pickering LK, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 26th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003 : 118 – 121 (25) American Academy of Pediatrics, (2001) Committee on Drugs. Transfer of drugs and other chemicals into human milk. Pediatrics. 2001 ; 108 : 776 – 789 (26) American Academy of Pediatrics, (2004) Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant 35 or more weeks of gestation. Pediatrics. 2004 ; 114 : 297 – 316 (27) Sines D (1995) Impaired autonomy: the challenge of caring. Journal of Clinical Nursing 4 (2) 109 -115. (28) Marinker M.(1997) From compliance to concordance: achieving shared goals in medicine taking. BMJ 1997 ; 314 : 747 – 8. ############################################################### 12.05.07 PDG Word count 2,183 Polycrystalline Ceramics: Sub Grain Structure Polycrystalline Ceramics: Sub Grain Structure Pure un-doped zirconia is a polymorph which has three allotropes namely: Monoclinic, Tetragonal and finally Cubic. These phases tend to transform into each other when exposed to certain temperature ranges and such transformation is important for the processing and mechanical properties of zirconia. The monoclinic phase of pure un-doped zirconia is stable at room temperature and remains so up to about 11700C, where it then transforms into tetragonal phase. It becomes stable tetragonal at this temperature and remains so up to 23700C, where it turns to cubic. The cubic phase occurs up to the melting temperature of 26800C. Monoclinic phase The monoclinic form also referred to as baddeleyite, is a thermodynamically stable phase at a temperature range between room temperature and approximately 9500C. It contains four ZrO2 molecules per unit cell and has a space group of P21/c. Figure 2.1 shows the lattice parameter of monoclinic form. Its structure is described as a distorted fluorite (CaF2 structure). It is difficult to define the crystal structure of monoclinic zirconia because of its complexity as well as the problem of making a monoclinic single crystal with the satisfactory qualities due to: micro-cracking, low purity, twinning and disproportionate solid solution formation. Tetragonal phase This is a high temperature phase (t) firstly discovered by a group of scientist during its transformation from the lower temperature monoclinic phase over a temperature of about 11500C. Figure 2.1 shows the lattice parameter of tetragonal form. The structure is similar to that of monoclinic polymorph in the sense that it is also distorted CaF2 structure. Hence, tetragonal zirconia (t-ZrO2) can be described using the face centred tetragonal Bravais lattice as oppose to the body centred tetragonal lattice, that contains a unit cell with volume twice the size of the primitive cell. (3) Figure 2.2b shows a simple schematic of a tetragonal unit cell. Its structure comprises of eight oxygen ions surrounding a zirconium ion, with half at a distance of 0.2455nm forming an elongated tetrahedron and the remaining four are at a distance of 0.2065 forming a flattened tetrahedron (the elongated and flattened tetrahedron are rotated 900 to each other). The transformation from tetragonal to monocli nic can start (Ts) and finish (Ts) over a range of temperatures. This reaction can be measured using the following experimental techniques: DTA, XRD and dilatometry. (3) Cubic phase Unlike the other structures, the cubic polymorph is quite easy to explain as it has a fluorite structure (CaF2). Figure 2.2c shows a simple schematic of a tetragonal unit cell. It has a lattice parameter of the order 0.508nm (this however depends on the temperature purity of zirconia that is partially stabilised zirconia at room temperature or pure zirconia at elevated temperature) and a crystal symmetry of Fm3m.   The martensitic transformation For a martensitic transformation to occur, a change in shape is required which must also produce a plane that does not change during transformation. This is so that it is common to the phase produced as well as the parent phase. The phase transformation in zirconia involves a change in volume of between 4 to 5%. The matrix inhibits the transformed particle of zirconia causing a partial shape change. However, the transformation creates a strain which is held in the monoclinic and its surrounding grains. As a result of this, researchers have come up with the idea that transformation stresses are relieved by deformation twinning. When this happens, most of the lattice strain is then restricted to the monoclinic/matrix interface. Micro-cracks can be formed at this matrix/monolithic interface or in the monoclinic particle if this lattice strain increases. The twinning found in monoclinic is caused by deformation twinning, as the researchers have observed using TEM that a section of the st rain related with the transformation happens as a result of a mechanism known as slip. (3) The phase transformation particularly from tetragonal to monoclinic is of great importance, as it attributes the zirconias excellent properties. [from fulltext.pdf] It was firstly discovered by Garvie et al that the transformation of metastable tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase acts as a toughnening mechanism to crack propagation resistance in zirconia. The transformation is quick and results in a 4 to 5 percent increase in volume which leads to formation of micro-cracks and eventually macro-cracks in the material. This process induces compressive stresses and thus toughens the materials. Gupta et al backed this theory up. Studies showed that the transformation mechanism is highly dependent on grain size and by doping the ceramic material with stabilisers. Examples of stabilisers are yttria (Y2O3), magnesia (MgO), calcia (CaO), etc. Y-TZP ceramics is in the family of these toughened materials. Tetragonal zirconia doped with Yttria (Y-TZP) has great strength of over 1000MPa and tou ghness weighing between 6 and 10 MPa.m1/2. This makes it an ideal contender in medical applications, particularly in hip joints. ZrO2 Y2O3 The phase diagram shown in figure 3 was firstly discovered by Scott (1975), this study was agreed and used by many more researchers. The tetragonal phase field is the main aspect of figure 3. It shows that up to about 2.5mol% of Yttria can be produced in solid solution in addition with the low eutectoid temperature leading to the formation of a fully tetragonal ceramic, this will happen as long as the grain is of an appropriate size. The theory of transformation toughening produced some excitement in the materials industry however this excitement came to a halt when Kobayashi et al discovered a flaw in Y-TZP ceramics. Y-TZPs undergoes low temperature degradation during ageing at temperatures ranging from 100 to 4000C, this is particularly enhanced when it is exposed to water or is in humid environments. This degradation is due to the formation of flaws such as micro-cracks and macro-cracks (mentioned earlier) at the surface which gradually goes into the bulk of the material. These flaws are due to the spontaneous transformation from tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase. Material scientists have documented literature regarding the degradation however there have been contradictory views as to the mechanism of this phenomenon. Figure 4 is a graphshowing the low temperature degradation of different types of TZPs. Figure 5 shows ageing temperature against surface monoclinic levels. Some of these researchers focused on the interaction between water (or water vapour) and YTZP, whilst others focused on ways to prevent this from happened. Sato et al came up with a theory where the hydroxyl group from water (H2O) reacts with zirconia from the bonds between zirconia and oxygen (that is Zr-O-Zr bonds) forming Zr-OH bonds at crack tips. This accelerates the rate at which the metastable tetragonal phase transforms to monoclinic at low temperatures. They came up with the conclusion that there is a strain which stabilizes the tetragonal phase, however under certain circumstances it is released and with the combination other pre existing flaws accelerates the transformation. The theory put forward by Yoshimura et al is similar to that of Sato et al in the sense that the Zr-OH bonds are also formed. However, the reaction process which leads to the same outcome is what differentiates the two theories. Their research showed a comparison of the transformed monoclinic phase to the untransformed tetragonal ZrO2. Hydroxyl (OH-) was in the monoclinic ZrO2 whereas there was no trace in the latter. Due to their findings, they came up with the theory that the degradation process occurred in stages: upon exposure to water, Zr-OH bonds are formed as a result of H2O being adsorbed on the YTZP surface. This creates a stress site which builds up as the OH- ions diffuse through the surface and lattice causing the formation of nucleation sites for the phase transformation. This occurs until the stress reaches crack level causing the transformation to occur at the surface leading to the formation of micro and macro cracks all the way through to the bulk. Lange et al [7] witnessed ÃŽÂ ±-Y(OH)3 crystallites of about 20 50 nm in size forming and came up with the idea that the hydroxide formed creates a monoclinic nuclei by removing Yttria from the grains of the tetragonal phase on the surface. As Yttria is being withdrawn, growth of the nuclei continues until a critical size where it will grow spontaneuously, leading to the transformation of tetragonal grains to monoclinic. Micro cracks and macro-cracks begin to occur as the transformed grain gets large enough. This process happens over and over again as the micro and macro-cracks act as a site for water molecules to penetrate into to the grains. This process occurs only if the grains are larger than the critical size. However, if they are smaller, the transformation will be influenced by the diffusion of Yttria on the surface. Other researchers such as Winnubst and Burggraf support this theory, as they found traces of Yttria on surface layer of the YTZP specimen. Their specimen was exposed to temperature of 1770C in a nitrogen environment for over 5hrs and using an auger electron microscope, they found a yttrium rich surface layer. The listed theories were based on YTZPs mechanism during degradation. Whalen et al identified that the reason for this degradation is the spontaneous transformation from tetragonal phase to monoclinic phase at the surface which then eventually spreads to the bulk. They came up with the idea of stabilising the tetragonal phase. This could be done by either of the following two methods: the chemical factor which is increasing the stabiliser content on the surface or the microstructural solution which is reducing the grain size at the surface. The latter was decided upon and this was done by the process of post sintering grinding followed by annealing treatment. 2.45mol% Y2O3/ZrO2 was the material involved in the research. Samples of the material were made using isostatic pressing at pressure of 275MPa and then sintered at a temperature of 15000C for a time period of 2hrs. A 2mm disk was formed of which its two sides had different surfaces treatments, One side being polished and the other being surface grounded. The phase compositions at surfaces were then examined using XRD. The XRD result indicated there was a significant difference in the phase composition of both sides. The ground side showed little transformation change whereas there was 50% increase in monoclinic phase after annealing. This provided evidence that the ground and annealed surface hindered the process of phase transformation from tetragonal to monoclinic at the surface. As a result of this, there were no micro-cracks formed at the surface and hence the expected mechanical properties were achieved. Talk and compare it to mine later (TEM as oppose to XRD, advantages of process) The aim of this project is to provide evidence (if any) of the occurrence of refined grains (recrystallization) in Y-TZP structures as a result of deformation. The ideology used to explain the concept of recrystallization in metals can be used to explain its occurrence in ceramics as this is a new phenomena in the ceramic industry. Grain refinement requires certain conditions in its exposure in polycrystalline ceramics and they are: plastically deforming the material (as a result of applying a stress) and followed by heat treatment. Deformation is basically a change in body shape which occurs as a result of an applied force. Materials may experience either elastic which is impermanent deformation that upon the release of an applied stress is recovered or plastic deformation which is permanent deformation that is non recoverable when a stress is applied. YTZPs recrystallization behaviour can be explained by its ability to plastically deform. The stress and strain behaviour of a material is used to determine the start and the degree of plastic deformation. Figure 6 shows an example of a typical stress and strain curve. Yield tensile strength is the point at which elastic deformation ends and the material begins to plastically deformation. Most polymers and metals undergo elastic followed by plastic deformation but this is not the case for ceramics. They undergo elastic deformation followed by fracture with little or no plastic deformation. YTZP has superplasticity properties and this nature can be used to explain refinement in its microstructure. Plastic deformation is governed by the movement of large numbers of dislocations. Hindering dislocation motion will increase a materials strength. Ceramics are inorganic materials held together by both ionic and covalent bonds. The bonding combination results in hindering the motion of dislocations, hence their high strength but brittle behaviour. Dislocation is an important factor in understanding plastic deformation and so certain elements need to be examined in order to understand the concept. Most materials comprise of an arrangement of atoms referred to as a crystal structure (these can either be single or polycrystalline that is having multiple crystals as the name suggests). This project will focus on polycrystalline zirconia, however understanding single crystals help in explaining the behaviour of polycrystalline materials. All crystal structures have flaws that distort the regular arrangement of the atoms. These flaws can either be point defect (that is they may have vacancies or interstitials), surface, line (dislocations) and volume defects. The activities and effects of all these flaws are interconnected thus the importance in the need to understand them. As the dislocations move, they tend to interact with one another however this interaction is a complex as an amount of dislocations (rephrased from pdf). The collective motion of dislocations leads to gross plastic deformation. http://composite.about.com/library/PR/2001/blmpi1.htm Dislocations can either be screw, edge or a hybrid of both. Edge dislocation: in this dislocation, the line of defect is parallel to the shear stress. The dislocation movement is similar to that of a caterpillar in the sense that the motion is in small amounts at a time. Figure 7shows a typical schematic of the motion of dislocations. A is the extra half plane of atoms. As shear stress is applied, the bond between the upper and lower part of B is broken. The extra atom plane of atom A bonds with the lower part of B converting the lower part to an extra half plane. This motion causes the top half to move with respect to the bottom half. Screw dislocation: this is similar to that of edge in the sense that it also occurs with shear stress however, the defect line is perpendicular to the shear stress as oppose to being parallel. Just like the edge dislocation only a minute fraction of bonds are broken at a given time. Although the motions are different, the overall plastic deformation for both dislocations is the same. The primary mechanism that causes plastic deformation in crystals is called slip. As dislocations move across the crystals, they shear the crystals along their planes of motion. Slip System The degree of ease of motion of dislocations is different with in all crystallographic directions and crystallographic planes of atoms. Normally dislocation motion occurs in a preferred plane and within that plane there are specific directions at also which it occurs. The combination of the plane and direction is referred to as a slip system. The plane at which this motion occurs is referred to as slip plane, and the direction is referred to as slip direction. The slip system depends on the crystal structure of the material. Slip will only occur when the value of applied the shear stress exceeds a certain critical value. The mechanism at which slip occurs is different in single crystals that of polycrystalline materials. Schmid defined the critical shear stress in single crystals as shown in figure 9: Deformation is much more complicated in polycrystalline materials as the crystallography orientations of numerous grains have to be taken into account. This orientation is random and therefore causes the direction of slip to vary from one grain to another. Its complexity extends further more to the grain boundaries which acts as barriers to dislocation motion. Twinning is another mechanism at which plastic deformation can occur. The idea of twinning in plastic deformation is to allow further slip to occur by producing changes in plane orientations. It occurs when a fraction of the crystals adopts an orientation that is correlated to the orientation of the rest of the untwined lattice in an exact proportioned way. Figure 10 shows an illustration of an un-deformed crystal with one undergoing slip and twinning. There is a clear difference between slip and twinning. The crystal orientation in a slip is the same above and below the slip plane whereas in twinning differs across the twin plane. More differences is illustrated in figure 11 Slip Twinning Where it occurs Widely spread planes Every plane of region is involved Occurrence On many multiple slip systems simultaneously On a particular plane for each crystal Time required Milli seconds Micro seconds Size (in terms of inter atomic distance) Multiples Fractions. ANNEALING PROCESS LEADING TO RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION AND GRAIN GROWTH Annealing is a high temperature process that causes changes in a materials structure, leading to alterations in its properties. When a material is plastically deformed, majority of the energy is dissipated as heat, but a minute fraction is stored in the material as strain energy which is associated with a range of lattice imperfections established as a result of deformation. The deformation process as well as a number of various factors (such as temperature and rate of deformation) determines the amount of energy stored in the material. A reduction in deformation and an increase in intensity of deformation cause a vast increase in the amount of retained energy. The release of stored energy There are two main techniques of releasing the energy retained by a material due to plastic deformation and they are an-isothermal annealing and isothermal annealing. Anisothermal annealing occurs when the material is continuously heated from a lower temperature to that of a higher one (the energy discharged is determined as a function of temperature) whereas, Isothermal annealing occurs when the temperature is constant. The materials microstructure will undergo either or maybe all of these three restoration processes: recovery, recrystallization and grain growth. The extent of plastic deformation can sometimes determine the mechanisms of recovery and recrystallization. These processes require heat treatment to cause rearrangement of grain boundaries and dislocations. Recovery It is the initial stage of annealing that takes place at the low temperature stage of annealing. As a material is plastically deformed, a minute portion of mechanical energy is stored which exists in crystals as stacking faults, point defects (such defects are interstitials and vacancies) and dislocations. When a material is plastically deformed, it is at a thermodynamically unstable state of higher energy. This is converted to lower energy states by the application of annealing leading to a change in microstructure. There are two process involved in recovery: slip annihilating and polygonization. Slip annihilation occurs when dislocations of opposite signs (that is in the case of edge dislocations, the fusion of the positive and the negative edge dislocation or in the case of screw in which the right hand screw merges with the left hand screw) merge together thereby cancelling each other out. Polygonization is the rearrangement of dislocation after annihilation recovery to a lower energy configuration. During recovery, this strain energy built up is relieved to some extent by dislocation motion, due to enhanced atomic diffusion at high temperatures. Recovery leads to physical properties like thermal and electrical conductivities being recovered to their pre worked states. [ggbk] Recrystallization After recovery, grains are not entirely strain free. That is the energy state of the grains is relatively high. New sets of strain free grains having near equal dimensions in all directions with low dislocation densities are formed. This process is known as recrystallization. This mechanism of producing new equaxed grains is driven by the difference in internal energy between the unstrained and strained material. The process of recrystallization can occur after or during deformation. The manner at which recrystallization occurs is of two kinds which vary with materials. Firstly a continuous manner, at which the microstructure gradually evolves into a recrystallized one or a discontinuous manner at which distinct new grains nucleate and grow Recrystallization after deformation is referred to as static whereas the latter is known as dynamic. The extent at which recrystallization occurs is dependent on two factors namely: time and recrystallization temperature. The temperature at which recrystallization is completed in an hour is referred to as recrystallization temperature. It is usually a third to half the materials melting temperature. The rate at which recovery process occurs is inversely proportional to time (that is it reduces with increasing time). Recrystallization has an entirely different kinetic. During the isothermal annealing, recrystallization starts very slowly then builds up gradually up to a certain point where it slows down. This can be shown in figure 13 In some cases it can be as high 0.7th the melting temperature. An illustration of the relationship between recrystallization temperature and percentage cold work is shown in figure 14. It is understood that as the percentage cold work increases, the recrystallization temperature decreases. Other factors affect the rate and occurrence of recrystallization. The annealing temperature is one of a few factors that have an effect on recrystallization. A materials recrystallization temperature reduces annealing time. The stress applied is another factor both recrystallization and temperature, an increase in stress applied means a lower temperature is required to activate the process. Also, the deformation on the material must be enough to allow nucleation and growth. A process known as grain growth occurs in a polycrystalline material after recrystallization provided the annealing temperature is maintained. The restoration mechanism does not require prior deformation or recrystallization and therefore will occur during annealing in their absence in a polycrystalline material. Grain boundary is the driving force for recovery. Stored energy produced as a result of a material being plastically deformed is released during the process of annealing causing a change in microstructure. This energy released is as a result of various mechanisms due to crystal defect interactions: A decrease in crystal defects due to their reactions with each other. Dislocations with opposite signs interacting causing their annihilation and dislocation loop shrinkage. Relocation of dislocations causing the formation of lower energy configurations such as grain boundaries with low angles. The formation of grain boundaries with high angles. These reactions occur during the restoration process of recovery. After this process, the following can occur: Dislocations as well as point defects being absorbed as a result of the migration of high angle grain boundaries. A decrease in the overall grain boundary area. These micro-structural changes occur during the restoration process of recrystallization and recovery. As a result of these micro-structural modifications, an ideal definition of recrystallization is derived: Along with the micro-structural changes, the properties of the specimen also change correspondingly. Thus, deformation and annealing are important processing methods for producing desired properties of the material by controlling its microstructures. Recrystallization mechanism The start of recrystallization is referred to as nucleation and occurs when dislocations are rearranged so as to form low dislocation density sections that have a high angle grain boundary with great mobility and thus is capable of quick movement over the strained region or recovered matrix. Recrystallization has a low driving force and high grain boundary energies; as a result of these characteristics, thermal variations cannot explain regions surrounded by high angle grain boundaries that are free from defects upon annealing. Therefore, the formation of recrystallized grains does not occur during annealing but previously exists in the deformed state. Three methods can be used to describe nucleation and they are: Movement of high angle boundaries that already exist before annealing: this happens when pre existing grain boundaries move into grains that are highly strained as illustrated in figure 16 this process requires a favourable energy balance between an increase in the overall grain boundary surface and a reduction in stored energy as a result of the removal defects triggered by the migration of the boundary. Movement of sub boundaries (that is low angle boundaries): this model is based on the theory of polygonization where stored energy is reduced during annealing as a result of rearrangement and removal of defects. It occurs when sub grain boundaries besiege regions containing low dislocation densities. Upon formation of sub grains, with the help of sub grain boundary movement, they are able to grow at the expense their neighbouring grains. Dislocations are absorbed by migrating sub boundaries and because of this, their mobility, orientation differences and energies are increased until their transformation into high angle boundaries, thus illustrating nucleation. Sub grains coalescence: this occurs when two neighbouring subgrains merge leading to their crystal lattices coinciding. It is regarded as a slow process but when compared to migration of sub grains is favoured for annealing at low temperatures. it is illustrated in figure 17. In this method, stored energy is reduced leading sub boundaries disappearing, sub grains growing and increase in orientation differences between coalescence groups and their neighbouring sub grains. These lead to the formation of high angle boundaries which move at high speeds and cause the process of recrystallization nucleation. It is vital to identify the fact that the total energy balance that takes the disappearance of sub boundaries into account with the increase and orientation difference is favourable (that is it leads to a reduction in total free energy). This mechanism is illustrated in figure 18. The occurrence of these three models is relatively diverse and they will therefore occur under different conditions. The basic requirement for the occurrence of the movement of pre existing grain boundaries that is the existence of differences in large strain between neighbouring grains is well accepted by researchers. However, there is conflict as to when the mechanisms sub grain boundaries migration and the coalescence of sub grains occur. Researchers believed the coalescence of sub grain boundaries are linked with large dispersion of sub grain angles distribution, relatively moderate strain, and reasonably low annealing temperatures. Whereas the mechanism of sub grain migration is linked with high annealing temperatures, strains that are relatively high and large dispersion in the distribution in sub grain size. Growth of recrystallized regions The basic mechanism causing recrystallization and grain growth is the migration of grain boundaries with high angles. However their driving force is what differentiates them from each other. The energy of the high angled grain boundaries is the main driving force for grain growth whether it being abnormal or normal growth. Whereas that for recrystallization is the energy stored during straining appeared as crystalline defects. In defect free regions that are encircled by boundaries with high angle, recrystallization progresses by enlargement of this nucleus over the non recrystallized medium. Grain growth and recrystallizations migrating high angle boundary curvature signal is another important factor that differentiates the two. http://asmcommunity.asminternational.org/portal/site/www/AsmStore/ProductDetails/?vgnextoid=a75a7dcbe4e18110VgnVCM100000701e010aRCRD ASM Handbook Volume 14A, Metalworking: Bulk Forming (ASM International) http://www.accuratus.com/zirc.html http://www.totaljoints.info/ceramic_for_total_hips.htm#2 http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=940 http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eUZw4SgqaPYCpg=PA126lpg=PA126dq=phase+transformation+mechanism+leading+to+microcracks+zirconiasource=blots=fCFhf-satfsig=WNiOjbUtX06mA_d1NkXIEEHcOsshl=enei=r568S9zCKJHFsgaxkd3lCQsa=Xoi=book_resultct=resultresnum=4ved=0CBYQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepageqf=false EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Equipment Three samples of YTZP, 0ne made from 3mol Y2O3/ZrO2 powder and the other two made from the same powder but by two other manufacturers. Focused Ion Beam (FIB): is a technique used by material scientists in the analysis of a materials microstructure. the samples obtained can either be analysed directly using the FIB or transferred and viewed under a TEM or SEM. This process is similar to that of an SEM however ions (particularly gallium ions) rather than electrons. Figures 19a and b show how the FIB operates. The surface of the sample being tested is subjected to primary gallium ion beams. This spits a small part of the material, leading to the formation of either secondary ions (either positive or negative) or neutral atoms on the surface. Secondary electrons (e) are also produced from the gallium beam. This is collected as well as the signal from the split ions to form an image which is either analyzed using the FIB itself, SEM or TEM. http://www.fibics.com/fib/tutorials/introduction-focused-ion-beam-systems/4/ images is from here. GNU image manipulation program (GIMP): is an image editing software used to measure grain sizes. Vickers indentation: is used to form indentations which are viewed and studied under an optical microscope. A square imprint is formed from the Vickers indenter, where the two diagonal lengths are measured. In this project, the Vickers indentation is used to form plastic deformation. The surface defects such as scratches and unevenness need to be controlled, hence the reason for polishing. High temperature furnace: used for sintering and annealing. TEM Cold isostatic pressing Sample preparation Three mol% Y2O3/ZrO2 solid solution powder was used in this experiment. The powder was pressed into a disc at 200MPa, then sintered at 14500C for 2 hours. Two discs were produced, each pressed with loads 7.5 tons and 5 tons respectively. The load was reduced to 5 inorder to reduce the chance of lamination, as it occurred with the 7.5. Measurements and dimensions Sample 1: broken Sample 2 Weight 25.7711g 19.6836g Diameter 39.23 39.11 Height (thickness) 7.1 6.51 Dimensions after sintering<

Virtual Reality - A one way ticket? :: essays papers

Virtual Reality - A one way ticket? Virtual Reality is considered one of the most exciting technologies today, constantly evolving and improving. According to Eric Drexler, a world known pioneer in this field, VR is "A combination of computer and interface devices (goggles, gloves, etc.) that present a user with the illusion of being in a three dimensional world of computer generated objects." The term ^virtual reality,^ is not finite in its meaning, but generally includes desktop VR, immersion VR, where the goggles and gloves are used, and projection VR. The virtual reality technology is not yet perfect and still too expensive for the common man. The use of high-end VR is mainly restricted to larger companies, and to special areas such as medical surgery and pilot training. Home users are limited to desktop virtual reality programs, which lets them navigate in three-dimensional worlds, but seldom gives the feeling of actually being there. The entertainment industry has yet to embrace the technology in full scale, but in his book ^Virtual Reality^ Howard Rheingold states ^Used today in architecture, engineering and design, tomorrow in mass-market entertainment, surrogate travel, virtual surgery and cybersex, by the next century ^VR^ will have transformed our lives.^ Will VR cause people to lose their grip on the real world, or is it just a continuation of previous developments that took people to imaginary places? People seem to always have escaped to ^imaginary worlds^, to get a way from the stress of real life and to relax. We have all experienced Greek theatre, read novels and been to the cinema, and lived ourselves into fiction stories that we identify with. Our imagination creates a fiction world, which leads us away from real life for a moment of time. In our own utopia, we forget contemporary problems of reality. Even though the virtual reality technology creates a utopia for us to explore, it is in a lot of ways different from other developments we know so well today. June Deery, from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy says ^whereas in fiction we imagine and empathize, in cyberspace we are supposed to ^actually^ step into the other world.^ This means that the other world is not created in our minds, but is already there. We have to move in that world and take part in it, not only with our mind, but by using our senses, such as seeing, hearing and touching. These are our navigation tools. This world is imaginary in the way that it is not of something real, but a result of the programmer of that worlds imagination. It is ^virtual.

My Best Friend Died Essay -- Friendship Essay Personal Narrative

My Best Friend Died Dr. Munter's comments: The purpose of this assignment was to relate an event that changed the direction of your life. Not only does this student successfully accomplish this task, he does it with a certain amount of understatement. The instruction â€Å"to show, not tell† is beautifully and subtly completed. There is also a nice balance of long and short sentences, unusual similes, and the sense that the author allows the reader to view this event through the eyes of an eight-year-old. Overall, the writing is clean, simple in technique, yet powerful in its message. I remember the van. It was the gray of dry clay, and it had maroon stripes on the sides that were the same color as maple leaves during the fall, but it was winter now. It was my mom's van, and I was riding in the back seat. I was eight years old, and she had pulled over on the side of the road because she had â€Å"some sad news† to tell me. My legs didn’t touch the ground. They just dangled with my sorrels about to fall off. I was all bundled up in the puffy winter clothes that mothers dress their chi...

Essay --

â€Å"No temptation has seized you except what is common to man. And God is faithful; He will not let you be tempted beyond what you can bear. But when you are tempted, He will also provide a way out so that you can stand up under it.† 1 Corinthians 10:13 Rob & Burgandie Onekea with their two sons Derion (16) and Brandon (13) Rob & Burgandie Onekea with their two sons Derion (16) and Brandon (13) Online purity is a daily battle for many brothers and sisters in Christ. Taking control of your purity is something that is crucial to your spiritual walk with God; indeed, if you are continually losing this struggle, your salvation is at stake. For the Scriptures are forthright, â€Å"But among you there must not be even a hint of sexual immorality, or any kind of impurity or of greed, because these are improper for God’s holy people†¦ For of this you can be sure: No immoral, impure or greedy person – such a man is an idolater – has any inheritance in the Kingdom of Christ and of God.† (Ephesians 5:3-5) Ricardo is moved by his baptism! Ricardo is moved by his baptism! How many of us have been doing great spiritually, when suddenly you receive an email with an inappropriate image inside? Do we easily hit the delete button or are we ensnared the minute that we see the link? David fought a losing battle for purity, as he stood on the rooftop of the palace gazing into the area where Bathsheba was bathing. (2 Samuel 11) David could have chosen to look away, but his sinful desire compelled him to summon her to commit adultery. Sadly, after this affair, Bathsheba told David, â€Å"I am pregnant.† The consequences of David’s sin were many: the death of Uriah the Hittite (Bathsheba’s husband and one of David’s mighty men), the embittering of Ahithophel (Bathsh... ... Net Nanny. Adult websites have a wealth of resources at their disposal, which make it difficult to protect your home from pornography. Therefore, it is key to take things a step further and implement changes on your home computer. We easily spend $60 on the latest version of Halo or taking a family of four to see The Dark Knight, why then the lack of investment for our online purity? Most companies offer trial versions to download for 30 days to see if it works for you. As a brother who is now experiencing the victorious life, I would strongly recommend installing one of these programs. To download a trial version, click here. As our war for online purity continues, let us take up God’s spiritual weapons as well as our modern tools, and fight with everything we have for our salvation, for the salvation of our families and for the salvation of this very lost world.